Sanchez, C., Arribart, H. & Giraud Guille, M. M. Biomimetism and bioinspiration as tools for the design of innovative materials and systems. Nat. Mater. 4, 277–288 (2005).
Chen, J. et al. 3D-printed anisotropic polymer materials for functional applications. Adv. Mater. 34, 2102877 (2022).
Khuu, N., Kheiri, S. & Kumacheva, E. Structurally anisotropic hydrogels for tissue engineering. Trends Chem. 3, 1002–1026 (2021).
Zhao, G. et al. Hydrogel-assisted microfluidic spinning of stretchable fibers via fluidic and interfacial self-adaptations. Sci. Adv. 9, eadj5407 (2023).
Wang, X. et al. Stretch-induced conductivity enhancement in highly conductive and tough hydrogels. Adv. Mater. 36, e2313845 (2024).
Ryma, M. et al. Translation of collagen ultrastructure to biomaterial fabrication for material-independent but highly efficient topographic immunomodulation. Adv. Mater. 33, 2101228 (2021).
Ouyang, L., Armstrong, J. P. K., Salmeron-Sanchez, M. & Stevens, M. M. Assembling living building blocks to engineer complex tissues. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30, 1909009 (2020).
He, C. et al. 3D printing for tissue/organ regeneration in China. Bio-Des. Manuf. 8, 169–242 (2025).
Ouyang, L. Pushing the rheological and mechanical boundaries of extrusion-based 3D bioprinting. Trends Biotechnol. 40, 891–902 (2022).
Duraivel, S. et al. A silicone-based support material eliminates interfacial instabilities in 3D silicone printing. Science 379, 1248–1252 (2023).
Hinton, T. J. et al. Three-dimensional printing of complex biological structures by freeform reversible embedding of suspended hydrogels. Sci. Adv. 1, e1500758 (2015).
Xie, R. et al. Composable microfluidic spinning platforms for facile production of biomimetic perfusable hydrogel microtubes. Nat. Protoc. 16, 937–964 (2021).
Stankey, P. P. Embedding biomimetic vascular networks via coaxial sacrificial writing into functional tissue. Adv. Mater. 36, 2401528 (2024).
Kang, D. et al. Bioprinting of multiscaled hepatic lobules within a highly vascularized construct. Small 16, 1905505 (2020).
Larson, N. M. et al. Rotational multimaterial printing of filaments with subvoxel control. Nature 613, 682–688 (2023).
Trujillo-de Santiago, G. & Alvarez, M. M. Together but not scrambled: a perspective on chaotic printing/bioprinting. Aggregate 5, e548 (2024).
Zhu, S. et al. Bioinspired structural hydrogels with highly ordered hierarchical orientations by flow-induced alignment of nanofibrils. Nat. Commun. 15, 118 (2024).
Huang, W. et al. Nanoengineered extrusion-aligned tract bioprinting enables functional repair of spinal cord injuries. Cell Stem Cell 33, 340–354.e7 (2026).
Shao, L. et al. Omnidirectional anisotropic embedded 3D bioprinting. Mater. Today Bio 27, 101160 (2024).
Choi, S. et al. Fibre-infused gel scaffolds guide cardiomyocyte alignment in 3D-printed ventricles. Nat. Mater. 22, 1039–1046 (2023).
Prendergast, M. E., Heo, S.-J., Mauck, R. L. & Burdick, J. A. Suspension bath bioprinting and maturation of anisotropic meniscal constructs. Biofabrication 15, 035003 (2023).
Compton, B. G. & Lewis, J. A. 3D-printing of lightweight cellular composites. Adv. Mater. 26, 5930–5935 (2014).
Sydney Gladman, A., Matsumoto, E. A., Nuzzo, R. G., Mahadevan, L. & Lewis, J. A. Biomimetic 4D printing. Nat. Mater. 15, 413–418 (2016).
Ouyang, L. et al. Expanding and optimizing 3D bioprinting capabilities using complementary network bioinks. Sci. Adv. 6, eabc5529 (2020).
Spencer, A. R. et al. Electroconductive gelatin methacryloyl-PEDOT:PSS composite hydrogels: design, synthesis, and properties. ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 4, 1558–1567 (2018).
Liu, H. et al. Filamented light (fLight) biofabrication of highly aligned tissue-engineered constructs. Adv. Mater. 34, 2204301 (2022).
Hua, M. et al. Strong tough hydrogels via the synergy of freeze-casting and salting out. Nature 590, 594–599 (2021).
Sun, F. et al. Soft fiber electronics based on semiconducting polymer. Chem. Rev. 123, 4693–4763 (2023).
Liu, X. et al. Magnetic soft microfiberbots for robotic embolization. Sci. Robot. 9, eadh2479 (2024).
Chen, G. et al. A review of hydrogel fiber: design, synthesis, applications, and futures. Chem. Rev. 125, 5991–6056 (2025).
Kessel, B. et al. 3D bioprinting of macroporous materials based on entangled hydrogel microstrands. Adv. Sci. 7, 2001419 (2020).
Sundaram, S. et al. Sacrificial capillary pumps to engineer multiscalar biological forms. Nature 636, 361–367 (2024).
Guo, Y. et al. Microfiber-templated porogel bioinks enable tubular interfaces and microvascularization down to the building blocks for 3D bioprinting. Small 21, 2501594 (2025).
Ouyang, L., Armstrong, J. P. K., Chen, Q., Lin, Y. & Stevens, M. M. Void-free 3D bioprinting for in situ endothelialization and microfluidic perfusion. Adv. Funct. Mater. 30, 1908349 (2020).
Sunadome, K. et al. Directionality of developing skeletal muscles is set by mechanical forces. Nat. Commun. 14, 3060 (2023).
Fan, T. et al. Engineering strategies for the construction of oriented and functional skeletal muscle tissues. Biofabrication 17, 022013 (2025).
Ouyang, L. L., Wojciechowski, J. P., Tang, J. Q., Guo, Y. Z. & Stevens, M. M. Tunable microgel-templated porogel (MTP) bioink for 3D bioprinting applications. Adv. Healthc. Mater. 11, 2200027 (2022).
Duan, F. et al. Biphasic modulation of insulin signaling enables highly efficient hematopoietic differentiation from human pluripotent stem cells. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 9, 205 (2018).

