Labbé, I. et al. A population of red candidate massive galaxies ~600 Myr after the Big Bang. Nature 616, 266–269 (2023).
Boylan-Kolchin, M. Stress testing ΛCDM with high-redshift galaxy candidates. Nat. Astron. 7, 731–735 (2023).
Carniani, S. et al. Spectroscopic confirmation of two luminous galaxies at a redshift of 14. Nature 633, 318–322 (2024).
Glover, S. C. O. & Clark, P. C. Star formation in metal-poor gas clouds. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 426, 377–388 (2012).
Krumholz, M. R. Star formation in atomic gas. Astrophys. J. 759, 9 (2012).
Schinnerer, E. & Leroy, A. K. Molecular gas and the star-formation process on cloud scales in nearby galaxies. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 62, 369–436 (2024).
Warren, S. R. et al. CARMA CO observations of three extremely metal-poor, star-forming galaxies. Astrophys. J. 814, 30 (2015).
Shi, Y. et al. Oversized gas clumps in an extremely metal-poor molecular cloud revealed by ALMA’s parsec-scale maps. Astrophys. J. 892, 147 (2020).
Skillman, E. D. et al. ALFALFA discovery of the nearby gas-rich dwarf galaxy Leo P. III. An extremely metal deficient galaxy. Astron. J. 146, 3 (2013).
McQuinn, K. B. W. et al. Leo P: an unquenched very low-mass galaxy. Astrophys. J. 812, 158 (2015).
Bolatto, A. D. et al. The state of the gas and the relation between gas and star formation at low metallicity: the Small Magellanic Cloud. Astrophys. J. 741, 12 (2011).
Leroy, A. K. et al. Molecular gas and star formation in nearby disk galaxies. Astron. J. 146, 19 (2013).
Hunter, D. A., Elmegreen, B. G. & Madden, S. C. The interstellar medium in dwarf irregular galaxies. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 62, 113–155 (2024).
Maloney, P. & Black, J. H. ICO/N(H2) conversions and molecular gas abundances in spiral and irregular galaxies. Astrophys. J. 325, 389–401 (1988).
Wolfire, M. G., Hollenbach, D. & McKee, C. F. The dark molecular gas. Astrophys. J. 716, 1191–1207 (2010).
Bolatto, A. D., Wolfire, M. & Leroy, A. K. The CO-to-H2 conversion factor. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 51, 207–268 (2013).
Bisbas, T. G., Tan, J. C. & Tanaka, K. E. I. Photodissociation region diagnostics across galactic environments. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 502, 2701–2732 (2021).
Hu, C.-Y., Sternberg, A. & van Dishoeck, E. F. Metallicity dependence of the H/H2 and C+/C/CO distributions in a resolved self-regulating interstellar medium. Astrophys. J. 920, 44 (2021).
Hu, C.-Y., Schruba, A., Sternberg, A. & van Dishoeck, E. F. Dependence of XCO on metallicity, intensity, and spatial scale in a self-regulated interstellar medium. Astrophys. J. 931, 28 (2022).
Bialy, S. & Sternberg, A. CO/H2, C/CO, OH/CO, and OH/O2 in dense interstellar gas: from high ionization to low metallicity. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 450, 4424–4445 (2015).
Bialy, S. & Sternberg, A. Thermal phases of the neutral atomic interstellar medium from solar metallicity to primordial gas. Astrophys. J. 881, 160 (2019).
Roussel, H. et al. Warm molecular hydrogen in the Spitzer SINGS galaxy sample. Astrophys. J. 669, 959–981 (2007).
Togi, A. & Smith, J. D. T. Lighting the dark molecular gas: H2 as a direct tracer. Astrophys. J. 830, 18 (2016).
Hunt, L. K., Thuan, T. X., Izotov, Y. I. & Sauvage, M. The Spitzer view of low-metallicity star formation. III. Fine-structure lines, aromatic features, and molecules. Astrophys. J. 712, 164–187 (2010).
Naslim, N. et al. Molecular hydrogen emission in the interstellar medium of the Large Magellanic Cloud. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 446, 2490–2504 (2015).
McQuinn, K. B. W. et al. The Leoncino dwarf galaxy: exploring the low-metallicity end of the luminosity–metallicity and mass–metallicity relations. Astrophys. J. 891, 181 (2020).
Rubio, M. et al. Dense cloud cores revealed by CO in the low metallicity dwarf galaxy WLM. Nature 525, 218–221 (2015).
Evans, C. J. et al. First stellar spectroscopy in Leo P. Astron. Astrophys. 622, A129 (2019).
Telford, O. G., Chisholm, J., McQuinn, K. B. W. & Berg, D. A. Far-ultraviolet spectra of main-sequence O stars at extremely low metallicity. Astrophys. J. 922, 191 (2021).
Telford, O. G., McQuinn, K. B. W., Chisholm, J. & Berg, D. A. The ionizing spectra of extremely metal-poor O stars: constraints from the only H ii region in Leo P. Astrophys. J. 943, 65 (2023).
Telford, O. G. et al. Observations of extremely metal-poor O stars: weak winds and constraints for evolution models. Astrophys. J. 974, 85 (2024).
McQuinn, K. B. W. et al. The ancient star formation history of the extremely low-mass galaxy Leo P: an emerging trend of a post-reionization pause in star formation. Astrophys. J. 976, 60 (2024).
Aloisi, A. et al. I Zw 18 revisited with HST ACS and Cepheids: new distance and age. Astrophys. J. Lett. 667, L151–L154 (2007).
Izotov, Y. I. et al. SBS 0335-052, a probable nearby young dwarf galaxy: evidence pro and con. Astrophys. J. 476, 698–711 (1997).
Giovanelli, R. et al. ALFALFA discovery of the nearby gas-rich dwarf galaxy Leo P. I. H i observations. Astron. J. 146, 15 (2013).
Bernstein-Cooper, E. Z. et al. ALFALFA discovery of the nearby gas-rich dwarf galaxy Leo P. V. Neutral gas dynamics and kinematics. Astron. J. 148, 35 (2014).
Shi, Y. et al. Carbon monoxide in an extremely metal-poor galaxy. Nat. Commun. 7, 13789 (2016).
McKee, C. F. & Ostriker, E. C. Theory of star formation. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 45, 565–687 (2007).
Topping, M. W. et al. Searching for extremely blue UV continuum slopes at z = 7–11 in JWST/NIRCam imaging: implications for stellar metallicity and ionizing photon escape in early galaxies. Astrophys. J. 941, 153 (2022).
Atek, H. et al. Most of the photons that reionized the Universe came from dwarf galaxies. Nature 626, 975–978 (2024).
Bushouse, H. et al. JWST calibration pipeline. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6984365 (2025).
Spilker, J. S. et al. Spatial variations in aromatic hydrocarbon emission in a dust-rich galaxy. Nature 618, 708–711 (2023).
Argyriou, I. et al. JWST MIRI flight performance: the Medium-Resolution Spectrometer. Astron. Astrophys. 675, A111 (2023).
Law, D. R. et al. A 3D drizzle algorithm for JWST and practical application to the MIRI Medium Resolution Spectrometer. Astron. J. 166, 45 (2023).
Burton, M. G., Hollenbach, D. J. & Tielens, A. G. G. Mid-infrared rotational line emission from interstellar molecular hydrogen. Astrophys. J. 399, 563–572 (1992).
Roueff, E. et al. The full infrared spectrum of molecular hydrogen. Astron. Astrophys. 630, A58 (2019).
Herbst, T. M. et al. A near-infrared spectral imaging study of T Tau. Astron. J. 111, 2403 (1996).
Hunter, G. H., Clark, P. C., Glover, S. C. O. & Klessen, R. S. Towards the impact of GMC collisions on the star formation rate. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 519, 4152–4170 (2023).
Gong, M., Ostriker, E. C. & Wolfire, M. G. A simple and accurate network for hydrogen and carbon chemistry in the interstellar medium. Astrophys. J. 843, 38 (2017).
Habing, H. J. The interstellar radiation density between 912 A and 2400 A. Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth. 19, 421 (1968).
Sembach, K. R., Howk, J. C., Ryans, R. S. I. & Keenan, F. P. Modeling the warm ionized interstellar medium and its impact on elemental abundance studies. Astrophys. J. 528, 310–324 (2000).
Bakes, E. L. O. & Tielens, A. G. G. M. The photoelectric heating mechanism for very small graphitic grains and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Astrophys. J. 427, 822 (1994).
Wolfire, M. G., McKee, C. F., Hollenbach, D. & Tielens, A. G. G. M. Neutral atomic phases of the interstellar medium in the galaxy. Astrophys. J. 587, 278–311 (2003).
Rémy-Ruyer, A. et al. Gas-to-dust mass ratios in local galaxies over a 2 dex metallicity range. Astron. Astrophys. 563, A31 (2014).
Draine, B. T. et al. Dust masses, PAH abundances, and starlight intensities in the SINGS galaxy sample. Astrophys. J. 663, 866–894 (2007).
Engelbracht, C. W. et al. Metallicity effects on dust properties in starbursting galaxies. Astrophys. J. 678, 804–827 (2008).
Whitcomb, C. M. et al. The metallicity dependence of PAH emission in galaxies. I. Insights from deep radial Spitzer spectroscopy. Astrophys. J. 974, 20 (2024).
Hu, C.-Y., Sternberg, A. & van Dishoeck, E. F. Coevolution of dust and chemistry in galaxy simulations with a resolved interstellar medium. Astrophys. J. 952, 140 (2023).
Girichidis, P. et al. Physical processes in star formation. Space Sci. Rev. 216, 68 (2020).
CASA Team et al. CASA, the Common Astronomy Software Applications for radio astronomy. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 134, 114501 (2022).
Schruba, A. et al. A molecular star formation law in the atomic-gas-dominated regime in nearby galaxies. Astron. J. 142, 37 (2011).
Schruba, A. et al. Low CO luminosities in dwarf galaxies. Astron. J. 143, 138 (2012).
Grenier, I. A., Casandjian, J.-M. & Terrier, R. Unveiling extensive clouds of dark gas in the solar neighborhood. Science 307, 1292–1295 (2005).
Jameson, K. E. et al. First results from the Herschel and ALMA spectroscopic surveys of the SMC: the relationship between [C ii]-bright gas and CO-bright gas at low metallicity. Astrophys. J. 853, 111 (2018).
Madden, S. C. et al. Tracing the total molecular gas in galaxies: [CII] and the CO-dark gas. Astron. Astrophys. 643, A141 (2020).
Astropy Collaboration et al. Astropy: a community Python package for astronomy. Astron. Astrophys. 558, A33 (2013).
Astropy Collaboration et al. The Astropy Project: building an open-science project and status of the v2.0 core package. Astron. J. 156, 123 (2018).
Aver, E. et al. A comprehensive chemical abundance analysis of the extremely metal poor Leoncino Dwarf galaxy (AGC 198691). Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 510, 373–382 (2022).
Perez, F. & Granger, B. E. IPython: a system for interactive scientific computing. Comput. Sci. Eng. 9, 21–29 (2007).
Hunter, J. D. Matplotlib: a 2D graphics environment. Comput. Sci. Eng. 9, 90–95 (2007).
van der Walt, S., Colbert, S. C. & Varoquaux, G. The NumPy array: a structure for efficient numerical computation. Comput. Sci. Eng. 13, 22–30 (2011).
Harris, C. R. et al. Array programming with NumPy. Nature 585, 357–362 (2020).
Joye, W. A. & Mandel, E. New features of SAOImage DS9. In Astronomical Data Analysis Software and Systems XII, Astronomical Society of the Pacific Conference Series, Vol. 295 (eds Payne, H. E., Jedrzejewski, R. I. & Hook, R. N.) 489 (ASP, 2003).
Virtanen, P. et al. SciPy 1.0: fundamental algorithms for scientific computing in Python. Nat. Methods 17, 261–272 (2020).
Ginsburg, A. et al. radio-astro-tools/spectral-cube: v0.4.4. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.591639 (2019).
