Science Panel for the Amazon. Amazon Assessment Report 2025: Connectivity of the Amazon for a Living Planet (eds Peña-Claros, M. et al.) (Sustainable Development Solutions Network, 2025).
Aikhenvald, A. Y. in Languages of the Amazon (ed. Aikhenvald, A. Y.) 1–67 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2012).
Hubbell, S. P. et al. How many tree species are there in the Amazon and how many of them will go extinct? Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 11498–11504 (2008).
Schultes, R. E. Burning the library of Amazonia. Sciences 34, 24–32 (1994).
Flores, B. M. et al. Critical transitions in the Amazon forest system. Nature 626, 555–564 (2024).
Sales, L. P., Galetti, M. & Pires, M. M. Climate and land-use change will lead to a faunal “savannization” on tropical rainforests. Glob. Change Biol. 26, 7036–7044 (2020).
Gomes, V. H., Vieira, I. C., Salomão, R. P. & ter Steege, H. Amazonian tree species threatened by deforestation and climate change. Nat. Clim. Change 9, 547–553 (2019).
Reyes-Garcı́a, V. et al. Indigenous peoples and local communities report ongoing and widespread climate change impacts on local social-ecological systems. Commun. Earth Environ. 5, 29 (2024).
Cruz-Gispert, A. et al. Indigenous peoples and local community reports of climate change impacts on biodiversity. Conserv. Biol. 40, e70033 (2026).
Moreno-Mayar, J. V. et al. Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan genome reveals first founding population of Native Americans. Nature 553, 203–207 (2018).
Iriarte, J. The Archaeology of Amazonia: A Human History (Bloomsbury, 2024).
Schultes, R. E. Gifts of the Amazon flora to the world. Arnoldia 50, 21–34 (1990).
Schultes, R. E. & Raffauf, R. F. The Healing Forest: Medicinal and Toxic Plants of the Northwest Amazonia (Dioscorides Press, 1990).
Cardoso, D. et al. Amazon plant diversity revealed by a taxonomically verified species list. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, 10695–10700 (2017).
ter Steege, H. et al. Towards a dynamic list of Amazonian tree species. Sci. Rep. 9, 3501 (2019).
Revilla, J. Plantas Úteis da Bacia Amazônica (SEBRAE-AM/INPA, 2002).
Morcote-Rios, G. & Bernal, R. Remains of palms (Palmae) at archaeological sites in the New World: a review. Bot. Rev. 67, 309–350 (2001).
Cámara-Leret, R. et al. Fundamental species traits explain provisioning services of tropical American palms. Nat. Plants 3, 16220 (2017).
McMichael, C. N. Ecological legacies of past human activities in Amazonian forests. New Phytol. 229, 2492–2496 (2021).
Barlow, J. et al. How pristine are tropical forests? An ecological perspective on the pre-Columbian human footprint in Amazonia and implications for contemporary conservation. Biol. Conserv. 151, 45–49 (2012).
Fernández-Llamazares, Á et al. The global relevance of locally grounded ethnobiology. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 20, 53 (2024).
Eberhard, D. M., Simons, G. F. & Fennig, C. D. Ethnologue: Languages of the World 26th edn (SIL International, 2023).
Cámara-Leret, R., Fortuna, M. A. & Bascompte, J. Indigenous knowledge networks in the face of global change. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 9913–9918 (2019).
Cámara-Leret, R. & Bascompte, J. Language extinction triggers the loss of unique medicinal knowledge. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 118, e2103683118 (2021).
Hammarström, H., Forkel, R., Haspelmath, M. & Bank, S. Glottolog 4.7. Glottolog https://glottolog.org/ (2023).
Lapola, D. M. et al. The drivers and impacts of Amazon forest degradation. Science 379, eabp8622 (2023).
Feng, X. et al. How deregulation, drought and increasing fire impact Amazonian biodiversity. Nature 597, 516–521 (2021).
Soares-Filho, B. S. et al. Modelling conservation in the Amazon basin. Nature 440, 520–523 (2006).
Wenzel, F. & Mendes, K. Iconic Brazil nut crop plunges after extreme drought, skyrocketing prices. Mongabay https://news.mongabay.com/2025/07/iconic-brazil-nut-crop-plunges-after-extreme-drought-skyrocketing-prices (10 July 2025).
Zellweger, F. et al. Forest microclimate dynamics drive plant responses to warming. Science 368, 772–775 (2020).
Haesen, S. et al. Microclimate reveals the true thermal niche of forest plant species. Ecol. Lett. 26, 2043–2055 (2023).
Feeley, K. J. et al. Tropical trees will need to acclimate to rising temperatures—but can they? Plants 12, 3142 (2023).
Thuiller, W. et al. Uncertainty in ensembles of global biodiversity scenarios. Nat. Commun. 10, 1446 (2019).
Hemming, J. Tree of Rivers: The Story of the Amazon (Thames & Hudson, 2009).
Crevels, M. in The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide (eds Campbell, L. & Grondona, V.) 167–235 (De Gryter, 2012).
Nobre, C. A. & Borma, L. D. S. “Tipping points” for the Amazon forest. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 1, 28–36 (2009).
Rede Amazonica de Informacao Socioambiental Georreferenciada. RAISG https://www.amazoniasocioambiental.org/en/maps/ (2021).
DeFilipps, R. A., Maina, S. L. & Crepin, J. Medicinal Plants of the Guianas (Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana) (Smithsonian, 2004).
De la Torre, L., Navarrete, H., Muriel, P., Macı́a, M. J. & Balslev, H. Enciclopedia de las Plantas Útiles del Ecuador (Pontificia Univ. Católica de Ecuador, 2008).
Rutter, R. A. Catálogo de Plantas Útiles de la Amazonia Peruana (Instituto Lingüistico de Verano, 1990).
Le Cointe, P. Árvores e Plantas Úteis: Indígenas e Aclimadas (Brasiliana, 1947).
Anderson, A. B. Os nomes e usos de palmeiras entre uma tribo de Índios Yanomama. Acta Amaz. 7, 5–13 (1977).
Boom, B. M. Ethnobotany of the Chácobo Indians, Beni, Bolivia. Adv. Econ. Bot. 4, 1–74 (1996).
Bourdy, G. et al. Medicinal plants uses of the Tacana, an Amazonian Bolivian ethnic group. J. Ethnopharmacol. 70, 87–109 (2000).
DeWalt, S. J., Bourdy, G., Chávez de Michel, L. R. & Quenevo, C. Ethnobotany of the Tacana: quantitative inventories of two permanent plots of northwestern Bolivia. Econ. Bot. 53, 237–260 (1999).
Prance, G. T. An ethnobotanical comparison of four tribes of Amazonian Indians. Acta Amaz. 2, 7–27 (1972).
Coelho-Ferreira, M. Medicinal knowledge and plant utilization in an Amazonian coastal community of Marudá, Pará state (Brazil). J. Ethnopharmacol. 126, 159–175 (2009).
da Costa, I. B., Bonfim, F. P., Pasa, M. C. & Montero, D. A. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal flora in the rural community Rio dos Couros, state of Mato Grosso, Brazil. Bol. Latinoam. Caribe Plantas Med. Aromat. 16, 53–67 (2017).
Moraes, L. L. C. et al. A ethno-knowledge of medicinal plants in a community in the eastern Amazon. Rev. Ciênc. Agrár. 42, 565–573 (2019).
Oliveira, P. & Souza, B. Traditional knowledge of forest medicinal plants of Munduruku Indigenous people—Ipaupixuna. Eur. J. Med. Plants 31, 20–35 (2020).
De Paula Filho, G. X. et al. Ethnobotanical knowledge on non-conventional food and medicinal plants in Rio Cajari Extractivist Reserve, Amazon, Brazil. Preprint at ResearchSquare https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-35316/v3 (2020).
Kainer, K. A. & Duryea, M. L. Tapping women’s knowledge: plant resource use in extractive reserves, Acre, Brazil. Econ. Bot. 46, 408–425 (1992).
Pedrollo, C. T., Kinupp, V. F., Shepard, G. Jr & Heinrich, M. Medicinal plants at Rio Jauaperi, Brazilian Amazon: ethnobotanical survey and environmental conservation. J. Ethnopharmacol. 186, 111–124 (2016).
Ribeiro, R. V., Bieski, I. G. C., Balogun, S. O. & de Oliveira Martins, D. T. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ribeirinhos in the North Araguaia microregion, Mato Grosso, Brazil. J. Ethnopharmacol. 205, 69–102 (2017).
La Rotta Cuéllar, C. Estudio Etnobotánico Sobre las Especies Utilizadas por la Comunidad Indígena Miraña, Amazonas-Colombia (FEN-Colombia, 1986).
Sanz-Biset, J., Campos-de-la-Cruz, J., Epiquién-Rivera, M. A. & Canigueral, S. A first survey on the medicinal plants of the Chazuta valley (Peruvian Amazon). J. Ethnopharmacol. 122, 333–362 (2009).
Trujillo-C., W. & Correa-Munera, M. Plants used by a Coreguaje Indigenous community in the Colombian Amazon. Caldasia 32, 1–20 (2010).
Cerón, C., Reyes, C. & Yépez, P. Mil y más plantas de la Amazonia Ecuatoriana utilizadas por los Secoyas. Cinchonia 11, 13–205 (2011).
Echeverri, J. A. & Román-Jitdutjaaño, O. E. Witoto ash salts from the Amazon. J. Ethnopharmacol. 138, 492–502 (2011).
Cárdenas, D. et al. Plantas Útiles y Promisorias en la Comunidad de Wacuraba (Caño Cuduyarí) en el Departamento de Vaupés (Amazonía colombiana) (Instituto Amazónico de Investigaciones Cientı́ficas-SINCHI, 2007).
Lozano Balcázar, A. Los Barbascos Utilizados por los Ticuna del PNN Amacayacu. BSc Thesis, Uniandes (2005).
Giovannini, P. Medicinal plants of the Achuar (Jivaro) of Amazonian Ecuador: ethnobotanical survey and comparison with other Amazonian pharmacopoeias. J. Ethnopharmacol. 164, 78–88 (2015).
Reyes, C. Conocimiento y uso de plantas en tres comunidades Kichwas: Yana Yaku, Loro Cachi y NinaAamarun, Pastaza-Ecuador. Cinchonia 15, 164–256 (2017).
Alexiades, M. N. Ethnobotany of the Ese Eja: Plants, Health, and Change in an Amazonian Society (City Univ. New York, 1999).
Céline, V. et al. Medicinal plants from the Yanesha (Peru): evaluation of the leishmanicidal and antimalarial activity of selected extracts. J. Ethnopharmacol. 123, 413–422 (2009).
Odonne, G. et al. Medical ethnobotany of the Chayahuita of the Paranapura basin (Peruvian Amazon). J. Ethnopharmacol. 146, 127–153 (2013).
Fuentes, E. Los Yanomami y las plantas silvestres. Antropológica 54, 3–138 (1980).
Boom, B. M. Useful plants of the Panare Indians of the Venezuelan Guayana. Adv. Econ. Bot. 8, 57–76 (1990).
Cavalcante, P. B. Frutas Comestíveis da Amazônia Vol. I (Museu Paraense Emı́lio Goeldi, 1972).
Cavalcante, P. B. Frutas Comestíveis da Amazônia Vol. II (Museu Paraense Emı́lio Goeldi, 1974).
Cavalcante, P. B. Frutas Comestíveis da Amazônia Vol. III (Museu Paraense Emı́lio Goeldi, 1974).
Krukoff, B. & Smith, A. C. Rotenone-yielding plants of South America. Am. J. Bot. 24, 573–587 (1937).
Flores, F. A. Notes on some medicinal and poisonous plants of Amazonian Peru. Adv. Econ. Bot. 1, 1–8 (1984).
Brandão, M., Grandi, T., Rocha, E., Sawyer, D. & Krettli, A. Survey of medicinal plants used as antimalarials in the Amazon. J. Ethnopharmacol. 36, 175–182 (1992).
Muñoz, V. et al. A search for natural bioactive compounds in Bolivia through a multidisciplinary approach: part I. Evaluation of the antimalarial activity of plants used by the Chácobo Indians. J. Ethnopharmacol. 69, 127–137 (2000).
Bertania, S. et al. Evaluation of French Guiana traditional antimalarial remedies. J. Ethnopharmacol. 98, 45–54 (2005).
Odonne, G., Berger, F., Stien, D., Grenand, P. & Bourdy, G. Treatment of leishmaniasis in the Oyapock basin (French Guiana): A K.A.P. survey and analysis of the evolution of phytotherapy knowledge amongst Wayãpi Indians. J. Ethnopharmacol. 137, 1228–1239 (2011).
Tomchinsky, B., Ming, L. C., Kinupp, V. F., de Freitas Hidalgo, A. & Chaves, F. C. M. Ethnobotanical study of antimalarial plants in the middle region of the Negro River, Amazonas, Brazil. Acta Amaz. 47, 203–212 (2017).
Milliken, W., Walker, B. E., Howes, M.-J. R., Forest, F. & Lughadha, E. N. Plants used traditionally as antimalarials in Latin America: mining the tree of life for potential new medicines. J. Ethnopharmacol. 279, 114221 (2021).
de Carvajal, G. Descubrimiento del Río de las Amazonas Según la Relación Hasta Ahora Inédita de Fr. Gaspar de Carvajal con Otros Documentos Referentes á Francisco de Orellana y sus Compañeros (Imprenta de E. Rasco, 1894).
Acuña, C. D. Nuevo Descubrimiento del Gran Río de las Amazonas (Imprenta de Reyno, 1641).
Marcgrave, G. & Piso, W. Historia Naturalis Brasiliae: In qua non Tantum Plantæ et Animalia, Sed et Indigenarum Morbi, Ingenia et Mores Describuntur et Iconibus Supra Quingentas Illustrantur (Elsevier, 1648).
Aublet, F. Histoire des Plantes de la Guaiane Françoise Vol. 2 (Pierre-Francois Didot jeune, 1775).
von Martius, C. F. P. & von Spix, J. B. Reise in Brasilien in den Jahren 1817 bis 1820 Vol. 3 (M. Lindauer, 1823–1831).
Cámara-Leret, R. et al. Ethnobotanical knowledge is vastly under-documented in northwestern South America. PLoS ONE 9, e85794 (2014).
Brown, M. J. M. et al. rWCVP: a companion R package for the World Checklist of Vascular Plants. New Phytol. 240, 1355–1365 (2023).
Ulloa, C. U. et al. An integrated assessment of the vascular plant species of the Americas. Science 358, 1614–1617 (2017).
Hassler, M. A Complete, Synonymic Checklist of the Ferns and Lycophytes of the World (World Ferns, accessed 6 March 2026); www.worldplants.de/ferns.
Lewis, M. P. & Simons, G. F. Assessing endangerment: expanding Fishman’s GIDS. Rev. Roum. Linguist. 55, 103–120 (2010).
Kass, J. M. et al. wallace 2: A shiny app for modeling species niches and distributions redesigned to facilitate expansion via module contributions. Ecography 2023, e06547 (2023).
Maitner, B. S. et al. The BIEN R package: a tool to access the botanical information and ecology network (BIEN) database. Methods Ecol. Evol. 9, 373–379 (2018).
Owens, H., Barve, V. & Chamberlain, S. spocc: Interface to species occurrence data sources. R package version 1.2.4 CRAN https://cran.r-project.org/package=spocc (2025).
Karger, D. N. et al. Climatologies at high resolution for the Earth’s land surface areas. Sci. Data 4, 170122 (2017).
Hengl, T. et al. SoilGrids250m: global gridded soil information based on machine learning. PLoS ONE 12, e0169748 (2017).
Corlett, R. T. & Tomlinson, K. W. Climate change and edaphic specialists: irresistible force meets immovable object? Trends Ecol. Evol. 35, 367–376 (2020).
Hausfather, Z. & Peters, G. P. Emissions—the ‘business as usual’ story is misleading. Nature 577, 618–620 (2020).
Frieler, K. et al. Assessing the impacts of 1.5 °C global warming—simulation protocol of the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP3b). Earth Syst. Dyn. 13, 1009–1048 (2022).
Aiello-Lammens, M. E. et al. spThin: an R package for spatial thinning of species occurrence records for use in ecological niche models. Ecography 38, 541–545 (2015).
Kass, J. M. et al. ENMeval 2.0: redesigned for customizable and reproducible modeling of species’ niches and distributions. Methods Ecol. Evol. 12, 1602–1608 (2021).
Phillips, S. J., Anderson, R. P. & Schapire, R. E. Maximum entropy modeling of species geographic distributions. Ecol. Model. 190, 231–259 (2006).
Phillips, S. maxnet: Fitting ‘Maxent’ species distribution models with ‘glmnet’. R package version 0.1.4 CRAN https://cran.r-project.org/package=maxnet (2022).
Hirzel, A. H. et al. Evaluating the ability of habitat suitability models to predict species presences. Ecol. Model. 199, 142–152 (2006).
Theobald, D. M. et al. Global extent and change in human modification of terrestrial ecosystems from 1990 to 2022. Sci. Data 12, 606 (2025).
Csardi, G. & Nepusz, T. The igraph software package for complex network research. InterJournal Complex Syst. 5, 1695 (2006).
Cámara-Leret, R., Roehrdanz, P. & Bascompte, J. The forest of knowledge. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19202485 (2026).
