Kimble, H. J. The quantum internet. Nature 453, 1023–1030 (2008).
Wehner, S., Elkouss, D. & Hanson, R. Quantum internet: a vision for the road ahead. Science 362, eaam9288 (2018).
Azuma, K. et al. Quantum repeaters: from quantum networks to the quantum internet. Rev. Mod. Phys. 95, 045006 (2023).
Lu, C.-Y., Cao, Y., Peng, C.-Z. & Pan, J.-W. Micius quantum experiments in space. Rev. Mod. Phys. 94, 035001 (2022).
Bedington, R., Arrazola, J. M. & Ling, A. Progress in satellite quantum key distribution. npj Quantum Inf. 3, 30 (2017).
Liao, S.-K. et al. Satellite-to-ground quantum key distribution. Nature 549, 43–47 (2017).
Yin, J. et al. Satellite-based entanglement distribution over 1200 kilometers. Science 356, 1140–1144 (2017).
Ren, J.-G et al. Ground-to-satellite quantum teleportation. Nature 549, 70–73 (2017).
Liao, S.-K. et al. Satellite-relayed intercontinental quantum network. Phys. Rev. Lett. 120, 030501 (2018).
International space station. NASA https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/ (2025).
Gu, Y. The China space station: a new opportunity for space science. Natl Sci. Rev. 9, nwab219 (2022).
Albulet, M. Spacex Non-geostationary Satellite System: Attachment A Technical Information to Supplement Schedules (US Federal Communications Commission, 2016).
Bennett, C. H. & Brassard, G. Quantum cryptography: public key distribution and coin tossing. In International Conference on Computer System and Signal Processing 175–179 (IEEE, 1984).
Ekert, A. K. Quantum cryptography based on Bell’s theorem. Phys. Rev. Lett. 67, 661 (1991).
Xu, F., Ma, X., Zhang, Q., Lo, H.-K. & Pan, J.-W. Secure quantum key distribution with realistic devices. Rev. Mod. Phys. 92, 025002 (2020).
Peng, C.-Z. et al. Experimental long-distance decoy-state quantum key distribution based on polarization encoding. Phys. Rev. Lett. 98, 010505 (2007).
Rosenberg, D. et al. Long-distance decoy-state quantum key distribution in optical fiber. Phys. Rev. Lett. 98, 010503 (2007).
Liu, Y. et al. Experimental twin-field quantum key distribution over 1000 km fiber distance. Phys. Rev. Lett. 130, 210801 (2023).
Bennett, C. H. & Brassard, G. Experimental quantum cryptography: the dawn of a new era for quantum cryptography: the experimental prototype is working. ACM SIGACT News 20, 78–80 (1989).
Peng, C.-Z. et al. Experimental free-space distribution of entangled photon pairs over 13 km: towards satellite-based global quantum communication. Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, 150501 (2005).
Schmitt-Manderbach, T. et al. Experimental demonstration of free-space decoy-state quantum key distribution over 144 km. Phys. Rev. Lett. 98, 010504 (2007).
Sidhu, J. S. et al. Advances in space quantum communications. IET Quantum Commun. 2, 182–217 (2021).
de Forges de Parny, L. et al. Satellite-based quantum information networks: use cases, architecture, and roadmap. Commun. Phys. 6, 12 (2023).
Chen, Y.-A. et al. An integrated space-to-ground quantum communication network over 4,600 kilometres. Nature 589, 214–219 (2021).
Liao, S.-K. et al. Space-to-Ground quantum key distribution using a small-sized payload on Tiangong-2 space lab. Chin. Phys. Lett. 34, 090302 (2017).
Oi, D. K. et al. CubeSat quantum communications mission. EPJ Quantum Technol. 4, 6 (2017).
Neumann, S. P. et al. Q3Sat: quantum communications uplink to a 3U CubeSat-feasibility & design. EPJ Quantum Technol. 5, 4 (2018).
Kerstel, E. et al. Nanobob: a CubeSat mission concept for quantum communication experiments in an uplink configuration. EPJ Quantum Technol. 5, 6 (2018).
Haber, R., Garbe, D., Schilling, K. and Rosenfeld, W. QUBE – a cubesat for quantum key distribution experiments. In Proc. 32nd Annual AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, SSC18-III-05 (Utah State University, 2018).
Podmore, H. et al. Optical terminal for Canada’s Quantum Encryption and Science Satellite (QEYSSat). In Proc. 2019 IEEE International Conference on Space Optical Systems and Applications 1–5 (IEEE, 2019).
Miller, A. V. et al. Vector-towards quantum key distribution with small satellites. EPJ Quantum Technol. 10, 52 (2023).
Ahmadi, N. et al. QUICK 3 design of a satellite based quantum light source for quantum communication and extended physical theory tests in space. Adv. Quantum Technol. 2300343, 1–9 (2024).
Villar, A. et al. Entanglement demonstration on board a nano-satellite. Optica 7, 734 (2020).
Wang, X.-B. Beating the photon-number-splitting attack in practical quantum cryptography. Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, 230503 (2005).
Lo, H.-K., Ma, X. & Chen, K. Decoy state quantum key distribution. Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, 230504 (2005).
Tomamichel, M., Lim, C. C. W., Gisin, N. & Renner, R. Tight finite-key analysis for quantum cryptography. Nat. Commun. 3, 634 (2012).
Lim, C. C. W., Curty, M., Walenta, N., Xu, F. & Zbinden, H. Concise security bounds for practical decoy-state quantum key distribution. Phys. Rev. A 89, 022307 (2014).
Roberts, G. L. et al. Patterning-effect mitigating intensity modulator for secure decoy-state quantum key distribution. Opt. Lett. 43, 5110 (2018).
Agnesi, C., Avesani, M., Stanco, A., Villoresi, P. & Vallone, G. All-fiber self-compensating polarization encoder for quantum key distribution. Opt. Lett. 44, 2398 (2019).
Li, Y. et al. High-speed robust polarization modulation for quantum key distribution. Opt. Lett. 44, 5262 (2019).
Wang, X.-B., Peng, C.-Z., Zhang, J., Yang, L. & Pan, J.-W. General theory of decoy-state quantum cryptography with source errors. Phys. Rev. A 77, 042311 (2008).
Paraïso, T. K. et al. A photonic integrated quantum secure communication system. Nat. Photon. 15, 850–856 (2021).
Liao, S.-K. et al. Long-distance free-space quantum key distribution in daylight towards inter-satellite communication. Nat. Photon. 11, 509–513 (2017).
Li, Y. et al. Space-ground QKD network based on a compact payload and medium-inclination orbit. Optica 9, 933 (2022).
Lo, H.-K., Curty, M. & Qi, B. Measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution. Phys. Rev. Lett. 108, 130503 (2012).
Lucamarini, M., Yuan, Z. L., Dynes, J. F. & Shields, A. J. Overcoming the rate-distance limit of quantum key distribution without quantum repeaters. Nature 557, 400–403 (2018).
Duan, L.-M., Lukin, M. D., Cirac, J. I. & Zoller, P. Long-distance quantum communication with atomic ensembles and linear optics. Nature 414, 413–418 (2001).
Ladd, T. D. et al. Quantum computers. Nature 464, 45–53 (2010).
Degen, C. L., Reinhard, F. & Cappellaro, P. Quantum sensing. Rev. Mod. Phys. 89, 035002 (2017).
Luo, W.-B. et al. Research on polarization compensation for practical satellite-based quantum key distribution. Opt. Commun. 570, 130925 (2024).
Zhang, L. et al. Design and in-orbit test of a high accuracy pointing method in satellite-to-ground quantum communication. Opt. Express 28, 8291–8307 (2020).
Qian, Y. et al. Note: A 10 gbps real-time post-processing free physical random number generator chip. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 88, 096105 (2017).
Herrero-Collantes, M. & Garcia-Escartin, J. C. Quantum random number generators. Rev. Mod. Phys. 89, 015004 (2017).
Jiang, C., Yu, Z.-W. & Wang, X.-B. Measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution with source state errors and statistical fluctuation. Phys. Rev. A 95, 032325 (2017).
Chau, H. F. Decoy-state quantum key distribution with more than three types of photon intensity pulses. Phys. Rev. A 97, 040301 (2018).
Tomamichel, M. & Renner, R. Uncertainty relation for smooth entropies. Phys. Rev. Lett. 106, 110506 (2011).
Currás-Lorenzo, G. et al. Tight finite-key security for twin-field quantum key distribution. npj Quantum Inf. 7, 22 (2021).
Jiang, C., Hu, X.-L., Yu, Z.-W. & Wang, X.-B. Composable security for practical quantum key distribution with two way classical communication. New J. Phys. 23, 063038 (2021).
Lo, H.-K., Chau, H. F. & Ardehali, M. Efficient quantum key distribution scheme and a proof of its unconditional security. J. Cryptol. 18, 133–165 (2005).
Sidhu, J. S., Brougham, T., McArthur, D., Pousa, R. G. & Oi, D. K. Finite key performance of satellite quantum key distribution under practical constraints. Commun. Phys. 6, 210 (2023).
Liao, S.-K. Data for ‘microsatellite-based real-time quantum key distribution’. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14732295 (2025).
